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Australian Spelling: Five More Rules

6/30/2018

It’s disconcerting for an editor to realize she doesn’t know how to spell. When I arrived in Australia, I discovered this country mostly follows British spelling rules, which meant I had to learn how to spell all over again. In my last post, I described using “-our” rather than “-or” in words like “colour” and “honour.” Here are five more new rules for me to master.

The first rule is to use an “s” instead of a “z.” We spell words like “generalize” and “analyze” with “-ize” or “-yze” endings. Australians use “-ise” and “-yse” instead. So “organize,” “authorize,” and “paralyze” become “organise,” “authorise,” and “paralyse.”

In the second rule, use “-re” instead of “-er.” Australian spelling retains an “-re” ending on some words to preserve their original French spellings. In contrast, Noah Webster standardized American spelling of those words to end in “-er,” to match how they were pronounced and to conform with the spelling of other words that ended in “-er.” In Australia, words like “theater,” “center,” and “kilometer” are spelled “theatre,” “centre,” and “kilometre.”

Noah Webster also tried to simplify American spelling by removing silent letters. Australian spelling instead retains the silent “a” and “o” for some words. The American spelling of “pediatrician” becomes “paediatrician” in Australia, and “estrogen” becomes “oestrogen.”

In the fourth rule, Australian spelling often uses double consonants. So, words like “focused,” “counseling,” and “traveled” become “focussed,” “counselling,” and “travelled.”

The last rule confuses me to no end. Sometimes, Australian spelling uses a “c” instead of an “s,” so our spellings of “defense” and “pretense” become “defence” and “pretence.” However, sometimes the opposite occurs, and words that we would spell with an “c” are replaced with an “s” in Australia. For example, our American spelling of “practice” is spelled “practise” by Australians—but only if it is used as a verb, as in “to practise piano.” If the word is used as a noun, then it is spelled “practice,” as in “We have band practice today.” I’ve decided that MY rule will be to consult a dictionary whenever I see an “-se” or “-ce” ending.

And then there are words that have completely different spellings, such as “cheque” instead of “check” and “tyre” rather than “tire.” Yep, a subscription to an online Australian spelling dictionary is definitely in my future.

Than vs. Then

3/31/2016

A client asked me to edit a PowerPoint presentation and check the use of than vs. then. Sure enough, than had been used when then was the correct choice. When do you use which word?

Let’s look at the easier one first. The word than is used after a comparison, so it often accompanies comparatives like taller, better, and smarter (to name just a few) and words such as more, less, and fewer.

Examples:
Tim is taller than Tom.
Sunset is later this month than last month.
Cassie has fewer paperbacks than her sister has.

Then is used when referring to time or a sequence of events.

Examples:
We’ll see you then.
She walked to the corner and then crossed the street.
Come to the diner, then we can order breakfast.

Combined with the word if, then can also mean in that case, or as a consequence.

Example: If the car is in the shop, then I won’t be driving to work.

Remember, use than in comparisons and then for everything else. Knowing the difference between than and then means you’ll never find yourself in this situation, from Season 1 of The Wire.

The Foreword, Preface, and Introduction

3/17/2016

A bunch of content needed to go at the beginning of a book I was working on for a client, and I didn’t know what to call that opening section. Should it be a foreword, preface, or an introduction?

A foreword, according to the Chicago Manual of Style, is usually written by someone other than the author. A foreword is like a stamp of approval on the book, and it helps publishers to market the book, particularly if an already-established author writes it. A foreword ranges from one to two pages. By the way, people often misspell “foreword” as “foreward” or “forward.” To remember the correct spelling, think of a foreword as the “word” that comes be“fore” the book.

A preface, which the author writes, is about the book itself. A preface often explains how the author wrote the book or why. A preface can also establish the author’s credibility to write about a topic. The goal of the preface is to draw in the audience and persuade them to read the book.

An introduction does exactly what the name implies: the author introduces the audience to the book’s content. An introduction may explain the book’s organization or its overall themes. If the author researched a topic, then the introduction may define terms or describe the methodology.

What comes first? If a book has all three opening sections, then the foreword is first, the preface follows, and third comes the introduction.

Oh, and my project? All that content ended up in an introduction, not a preface or foreword.

Hyphen or No Hyphen?

1/21/2016

To hyphenate or not to hyphenate ...

The other day, I sent back an edited manuscript to a client, and she had a reasonable question. Why did the phrase “search and rescue” have hyphens in some places and not in others?

The answer came down to parts of speech. What part of speech the phrase was in a particular sentence determined whether it took hyphens. If “search and rescue” is a noun—such as “I work in search and rescue” or “I do search and rescue,” then the phrase does not need a hyphen. However, if the phrase is a compound adjective that describes a noun, such as “a search-and-rescue dog” or “a search-and-rescue mission,” then the phrase takes hyphens.

So the same words in a manuscript sometimes need hyphens and sometimes do not. When a compound adjective appears before a noun, then hyphens help readers to see that the words make up a single unit to describe the noun. For instance, in this sentence—“I have a washer-and-dryer unit in my apartment”—it’s clear that the writer is referring to one appliance; without the hyphens, the meaning is unclear. In the sentence, “I have a washer and dryer unit in my apartment,” it’s possible that there are two appliances: a washer and a dryer unit (whatever that is). Also, if “washer and dryer” are nouns in the sentence, such as “the stacked unit combines a washer and dryer,” then no hyphens are needed since the meaning is clear.

Here are other examples of phrases that will take hyphens when used as compound adjectives but will not when they appear in the sentence as nouns:

When deciding whether to add hyphens, look at the phrase. What part of speech is it in the sentence? If the words are nouns, then they likely do not need a hyphen between them. If they are adjectives and make up a single unit that describes a noun, then add the hyphens.

The Ampersand

1/7/2016

This elegant symbol was originally a combination of the letters e and t in et, the Latin word for and. The first appearance we know about was in Pompeii, when an unknown graffitist in a hurry scrawled it on a wall circa 79 A.D.

Although the symbol goes back nearly two thousand years, its name is a relative newcomer. Scholars believe the name ampersand originated in the nineteenth century, when the symbol & was included as the last letter of the alphabet. When children recited the alphabet aloud, they prefaced A, I, and & with per se, which meant by itself, because when spoken aloud, A, I, and & create separate words. The children’s recitation sounded like this: “Y, Z, and per se and.” Over time, those words slurred together as ampersand.

The ampersand has a few specialized uses:

It may appear as part of a name in law firms, companies, and other organizations (e.g., Johnson & Johnson). The ampersand is a legal part of the name and cannot be replaced with and.
An ampersand may be part of the accepted spelling of an acronym, such as R & D, R & R, or B & B.
In a tweet, you can use the ampersand instead of and because you are limited to 140 characters. Normally, though, do not substitute & for and in other writing; it reads as informal and sloppy.
In parenthetical academic citations in the text, as called for in MLA or APA style, use an ampersand when citing from a work with two or more authors (e.g., Smith & Jones).
Credits for a screenplay may include ampersands. According to the Writers Guild of America, an ampersand joins two writers’ names when they worked as a team on a screenplay. If the writers’ names are linked by and, then they worked separately on the project.

Remember, the ampersand is a specialist. Even though it means and, the word and symbol are not interchangeable.

When to Use Italics

10/8/2015

When I went to college (back in the Dark Ages), we typed our papers on typewriters. We underlined composition titles because typewriters didn’t come with a separate italic typeface. How times have changed—now we all need to know when to use italics.

Titles of works often appear in italics. A general rule is that longer works (or those made up of smaller parts) take italics. Shorter works, such as poems and songs, go within quotation marks. However, how you designate composition titles really depends on your style guide. For example, in The Chicago Manual of Style, the title of a television show would be in italics, while episode titles would take quotation marks. In contrast, the Associated Press Stylebook calls for both to be in quotation marks.

The names of ships and rockets are italicized, but car makes and models are not. Example: Apollo 7 and USS Zumwalt but Ford Mustang.

When referring to a particular word as itself, use italics. Example: I never remember how to spell eccentricity. Individual letters follow the same rule. Example: When Ella was a toddler, she had trouble pronouncing her l’s. Words that take the place of sounds should appear in italics as well. Example: The dog’s ha-ruff bark was more like a deep cough.

Foreign words , such as abuela or kohlrouladen, are often italicized, but there are exceptions. A general rule is to look up the word in Merriam-Webster. If it has an entry, then you don’t need italics.

Italics also emphasize a word or part of a word in a sentence. Don’t overdo italics for emphasis—too many italicized words can become annoying to the reader. Examples: I don’t care OR Puh-lease, as if I’d ever wear that outfit.

Remembering these simple tips will help you use italics correctly.

Subject-Verb Agreement

4/30/2015

Subject-verb agreement is one of the first things we learn when writing. The subject and verb in a sentence agree if they are both the same type. Singular subjects require singular verbs, and plural subjects require plural verbs. For example, “Tammy plays on the beach” is correct, but “Tammy play on the beach” isn’t. Easy, right?

Not always. Sometimes the components of the sentence make it harder to determine agreement.

The first challenge is when an intervening phrase comes between the subject and verb. If the subject is singular, but the intervening phrase is plural, then use a singular verb. Use a plural verb when the subject is plural and the intervening phrase is singular. Always match the verb to the subject. Example: The test on dividing fractions was hard OR Predictions about which horse will win the race are often wrong.

Indefinite pronouns used as the subject can also confuse subject-verb agreement. The table below lists which indefinite pronouns are singular and which are plural.

Whether the words in the third column are singular or plural depends on the particular sentence. If the indefinite pronoun refers to a singular word, then it takes a singular verb. If the pronoun refers to a plural word, then the verb is plural. Examples: Most of the workout was easy BUT Most of the exercises were easy.

Collective nouns can also be a challenge. A collective noun names a group. Some common collective nouns are army, audience, council, crowd, and staff. When a collective noun is the subject, it takes a singular verb if the sentence refers to the group as a whole. Example: The staff is located on the third floor.
A collective noun takes a plural verb when referring to individuals members of the group. Example: The staff have decided to paint their offices.

In the past, when the word data was used as a subject, it took a plural verb. However, usage has evolved, and now data is treated as a collective noun. Example: The data is compelling.

Compound subjects can be tricky as well. When subjects (whether singular or plural) are joined by the word and, they take a plural verb, as in "Anna and Lucy are friends." If the subjects are both singular and joined by or or nor, then they take a singular verb, as in “neither the teacher nor the assistant was late.” If one subject is singular and the other plural, then the verb agrees with the subject closest to it. Example: Either the cat or the dogs are responsible for the damage.

Amounts can also trip people up. If the amount is considered one unit, then the verb is singular, as in “two years is a long time to be away.” Otherwise, amounts take plural verbs. Example: “Three days are left in the month.”

Composition titles and the names of countries may complicate subject-verb agreement. Even when the names of works and countries are plural (such as The Final Days or the Netherlands), they take a singular verb because they refer to a single unit. Examples: The Grapes of Wrath is a compelling book AND The United States was represented at the conference.

Although the rules of subject-verb agreement are complex, remember these guidelines, and all your sentences will be in perfect agreement.

Hyphens and Compound Modifiers

3/5/2015

Hyphens join two or more words together to create a single idea. Often, those compound words are modifiers that describe a noun.

Ideally, a hyphen eliminates ambiguity. For example, “re-cover” has a very different meaning than “recover.” The phrase “working class parents” is open to interpretation. (Are the parents working class, or are they class parents who are working?) Add the hyphen, and the meaning of “working-class parents” is clear.

Not every compound word needs a hyphen. How do you decide to add one? There are four guidelines to remember.

The trend is to eliminate hyphens when possible. As an earlier Rose’s Red Pen noted, the longer a compound word is in use, the more likely it is to lose its hyphen.
If a compound modifier comes before the noun, it’s generally hyphenated to avoid confusion. Examples: man-eating ant vs. man eating ant
The exceptions are adverbs ending in “ly” and the word “very.”
Examples: quickly memorized poem vs. easy-to-remember poem or very good dessert vs. mouth-watering dessert
When a compound modifier comes after a noun, it is almost never hyphenated.
Example: less-appreciated music vs. the music was less appreciated.
Of course, there are exceptions. When the compound modifier follows a form of the verb “to be,” it is sometimes hyphenated to avoid misinterpretation. Example: Her statement was thought provoking. Did it provoke thought, or did people think it was provoking? The hyphen in “thought-provoking” clarifies the meaning. Other examples include: “The closet is pitch-dark” and “all the available jobs are full-time.”
Sometimes a hyphen breaks up double vowels or triple consonants, as in the examples “anti-intellectual” or “shell-like.” The trend is to eliminate those hyphens when possible, as in “reeducate” or “reestablishment.”

What to do when there are few hard-and-fast rules? Find a good dictionary and look the word up. Some style guides, such as The Chicago Manual of Style, have charts that show the spelling of common compound modifiers. If you’re still in doubt, look for ambiguity. Is the meaning clear without the hyphen?

To handle hyphens in compound modifiers, keep the four guidelines in mind, find a good reference, and evaluate the sentence for clarity.

Capitalization in Titles of Work

1/21/2015

The last post in Rose’s Red Pen explored how to set off the titles of work from the surrounding text by using either italics or quotation marks. This week’s post looks at how the Associated Press Stylebook and The Chicago Manual of Style each handle capitalization in the titles of works.

The table below summarizes the rules in both style guides. As usual, AP Style has relatively few rules, while The Chicago Manual of Style goes into much more detail.

In capitalization, the key is consistency. Pick a style guide and follow the rules for each and every title of a work.

Handling Titles of Works

1/15/2015

My mother's favorite book is "Pride and Prejudice."

Does that book title look funny to you? Your answer may depend on which style guide you use. I'm a fan of The Chicago Manual of Style, so the quotation marks appear odd to me. In that style guide, book titles are italicized. On the other hand, in the Associated Press Stylebook, quotation marks are correct.

In The Chicago Manual of Style, a shorter work (such as a song, poem, or short story) generally appears in quotation marks, while longer works have italics. In AP style, nearly every type of composition uses quotation marks.

The table below shows how to handle different kinds of composition titles in Chicago and AP styles.

Pride and Prejudice will always look better to me than "Pride and Prejudice," but at least by referring to the table, I'll know the quotation marks aren't necessarily wrong.